Nature or Nurture- A Review of the Aetiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Keywords:
medicineAbstract
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurobehavioural disorder characterised by developmentally inappropriate levels of hyperactivity, impulsiveness and inattention. Heritability data from twin studies of ADHD attribute about 75 percent of ADHD aetiology to genetic factors. The remaining 25 percent is attributed to environmental influences. ADHD affects 3 to 5% of children and a smaller percentage of adults. Diagnosis is based on criteria from the DSM-IV or ICD-10 and determined by a complete physical and behavioural evaluation. Psychoactive medication is consistently the most effective approach to managing ADHD and many effective pharmacological treatments are currently available.References
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7.Hunt RD, Paguin A, Payton K. An update on assessment and treatment of complexattention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatr Ann, 2001 Mar;30(3):162-72.
8.Levy F, Hay DA, McStephen M, Wood C, Waldman I. Attention-deficit hyperactivitydisorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, Jun 1997;36(6):737-44.
9.Biederman J, Faraone, SV. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet, 2005; 366:237–48
10. Sherman, D.K., McGue, M.K., and Iacono, W.G. Twin concordance for attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of teachers' and mothers' reports. Am JPsychiatry, Apr 1997; 154: 532 - 35
11. Turic D, Langley K, Mills S et al. Follow-up of genetic linkage findings onchromosome 16p13: evidence of association of N-methyl-D aspartate glutamatereceptor 2A gene polymorphism with ADHD. Mol Psychiatry, 2004 Feb;9(2):169-73.
12. Smalley SL, Kustanovich V, Minassian SL et al. Genetic linkage of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder on chromosome 16p13, in a region implicated in autism.Am J Hum Genet, 2002 Oct; 71(4):959-63.
13.Eddy LS, Toro Trallero J, Salamero Baro M, Castro Fornieles J, Cruz Hernandez M.Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. A survey to evaluate risk factors, associatedfactors and parental child rearing behavior. An Esp Pediatr, 1999 Feb;50(2):145-50.
14. Rutter M., Quinton D. Psychiatric disorder: ecological factors and concepts of causation. In: McGurk H., ed. Ecological Factors in Human Development. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: North-Holland Publishing Co; 1977:173-87.
15. Biederman J, Milberger S, Faraone SV et al. Family-environment risk factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Atest of Rutter's indicators of adversity. Arch Gen Psychiatry,1995 Jun;52(6):464-70.
16. Sonuga-Barke E.J. The dual pathway model of AD/HD: an elaboration of neuro-developmental characteristics. Neurosci Biobehav Rev,2003 Nov; 27(7):593-604.
17. Sterman, M.B. EEG Markers for attention deficit disorder: Pharmacological and Neurofeedback Applications. Child Study Journal,2002; 30 (1):1-24
18. Giedd J.N., Castellanos F.X., Casey B.J., et al. Quantitative morphology of the corpus callosum in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Amer J Psychiat,1994.151: 665-69
19. Filipek, P.A., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Steingard, R.J., Renshaw, P.F., Kennedy, D.N. and Biederman, J. Volumetric MRI analysis comparing subjects having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with normal controls. Neurology,1997; 48(3); 589-601
20. Castellanos, F.X., Giedd, J.N., March, W.L. et al. Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiat,1996.53: 607-13
21. Sorensen MJ, Mors O, Thomsen PH.DSM-IV or ICD-10-DCR diagnoses in child and adolescent psychiatry: does it matter?Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry,2005 Sep;14(6):335-40
22. Webb, J.T. Misdiagnosis and Dual Diagnosis of gifted Children: Gifted and LD, ADHD, OCD, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, paper presented at the 108thAnnual Conference of the American Psychological Association, August, 2000, Washington D.C.
23. American Psychiatric Association. Accessed on 12thMarch 2006 at http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/adhd.htm
24. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A,Malloy P, Hynes ME. Educational and occupational outcome of hyperactive boys grown up.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry,1997 Sep;36(9):1222-27.
25. Hinshaw, S. P. (1994). Attention deficits and hyperactivity in children. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
26. Kollins, S.H.,Barkley, R.A. and DuPaul G.J.Use and management of medications for children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, ArchNeurology,2001 41:825-29
27. Daley, D. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review of the essential facts.Child Care Health Dev,2006 Mar;32(2):193-204.
28. Purdie, N., Hattie, J. and Carroll,A. A Review of the Research on Interventions for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: What Works Best? RevEducatResearch,2002; 72(1)61–99.
29. MTA Cooperative Group. 14-Month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry,1999;56:1073-86.
30. National Institute forHealthand Clinical Excellence. Accessed February 4th, 2006, at http://www.nice.org.uk/page.aspx?o=207034
31. Zito, J.M., Safer, D.J., dosReis, S., Magder, L.S., Gardner, J.F., Zarin, D.A. Psychotherapeutic medication patterns for youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999 Dec;153(12):1257-63.
32. Leonard B.E., McCartan D, White J, King D. Methylphenidate: a review of its neuropharmacological, neuropsychological and adverse clinical effects. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp,2004; 19: 151-80.
33. Wall SC, Gu H, Rudnick G.Biogenic amine flux mediated by cloned transporters stably expressed in cultured cell lines: amphetamine specificity for inhibition and efflux. Mol Pharmacol. 1995;47: 544–50.
34. Volkow, N.D., Wang, G.J., Fowler, J.S., et al. Dopamine transporter occupancies in the human brain induced by therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate. Amer J Psychiat,1998a. 155: 1325–31.
35. Volkow,N.D.,Wang,G.J., Fowler,J.S., et al.Differences in regional brain metabolic responses between single and repeated doses of methylphenidate. Psychiat Res,1998b. 83: 29–36.
36. Tourette's Syndrome Study Group.Treatment of ADHD in children with tics: a randomized controlled trial.Neurology.2002 Feb. 26;58(4):527-36.
37. Pelham WE Jr, Greenslade KE, Vodde-Hamilton M, et al. Relative efficacy of long-acting stimulants on children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of standard methylphenidate, sustained-release methylphenidate, sustained-release dextroamphetamine, andpemoline. Pediatrics. 1990;86:226-37.
38. Pelham WE, Aronoff HR, Midlam JK, et al. A comparison of ritalin and adderall: efficacy and time-course in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 1999 Apr;103(4):e43.
39. Bouron A, Chatton JY. Acute application of the tricyclic antidepressant desipramine presynaptically stimulates the exocytosis of glutamate in the hippocampus.Neuroscience, 1999 Mar; 90(3): 729-36
40. Brown RT, Amler RW, Freeman WS, et al. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Quality Improvement; American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: overview of the evidence.Pediatrics.2005 Jun;115(6):e749-57.
41. Greydanus DE. Pharmacologic treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Indian J Pediatr.2005;72:953-60.
42. Hunt, R.D., Arnsten, A.F., Asbell, M.D. An open trial of guanfacine in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995 Jan;34(1):50-4.
43. Connor, D.F., Fletcher, K.E., Swanson, J.M. A meta-analysisof clonidine for symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999 Dec;38(12):1551-59.
44. Barbey, J.T., Roose, S.P.SSRI safety in overdose. J Clin Psychiatry,1998; 59 Suppl 15:42-8
45. Corman, S.L., Fedutes, B.A., Culley, C.M.Atomoxetine: the first nonstimulant for the management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2004 Nov;15;61(22):2391-99.
46. Barton, J. Atomoxetine: a new pharmacotherapeutic approach in the managementof attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Dis Child. 2005 Feb;90 Suppl 1:i26-9.
47. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.Accessed on 12thMarch,2006 at http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=7729
48.Simpson, D., Plosker, G.L., Atomoxetine: a review of its use in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Drugs. 2004;64(2):205-22.
49. AmericanAcademy of Pediatrics. Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Committee on Quality Improvement. Clinical practice guideline: treatment of the school-aged child withattention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics,2001;108;1033-44.
2. Hadd family support group. Accessed 13th February, 2006, athttp://www.irishhealth.com/index.html?level=4&id=7427)
3. Fassler, D. 2002. ADHD: Are Children Being Overmedicated? American PsychiatricOrganisation. Accessed on 4th of April, 2005, athttp://www.psych.org/advocacy_policy/leg_res/apa_testimony/adhd_testimony92602.cfm
4. Strock M., Barkley, R.A., Jensen, P.A., Menvielle, E., Vitiello, B. 2003. AttentionDeficit Hyperactivity Disorder National Institute of Mental Health. Accessed 01 April,2005, at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/adhd.cmf
5. Doggett, M. ADHD and drug therapy: is it still a valid treatment? J Child Healthcare,2004;8(1) 69-81
6. Chronis AM, Lahey BB, Pelham WE Jr, Kipp HL, Baumann BL, Lee SS.Psychopathology and substance abuse in parents of young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2003 Dec;42(12):1424-32.
7.Hunt RD, Paguin A, Payton K. An update on assessment and treatment of complexattention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatr Ann, 2001 Mar;30(3):162-72.
8.Levy F, Hay DA, McStephen M, Wood C, Waldman I. Attention-deficit hyperactivitydisorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, Jun 1997;36(6):737-44.
9.Biederman J, Faraone, SV. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet, 2005; 366:237–48
10. Sherman, D.K., McGue, M.K., and Iacono, W.G. Twin concordance for attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of teachers' and mothers' reports. Am JPsychiatry, Apr 1997; 154: 532 - 35
11. Turic D, Langley K, Mills S et al. Follow-up of genetic linkage findings onchromosome 16p13: evidence of association of N-methyl-D aspartate glutamatereceptor 2A gene polymorphism with ADHD. Mol Psychiatry, 2004 Feb;9(2):169-73.
12. Smalley SL, Kustanovich V, Minassian SL et al. Genetic linkage of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder on chromosome 16p13, in a region implicated in autism.Am J Hum Genet, 2002 Oct; 71(4):959-63.
13.Eddy LS, Toro Trallero J, Salamero Baro M, Castro Fornieles J, Cruz Hernandez M.Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. A survey to evaluate risk factors, associatedfactors and parental child rearing behavior. An Esp Pediatr, 1999 Feb;50(2):145-50.
14. Rutter M., Quinton D. Psychiatric disorder: ecological factors and concepts of causation. In: McGurk H., ed. Ecological Factors in Human Development. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: North-Holland Publishing Co; 1977:173-87.
15. Biederman J, Milberger S, Faraone SV et al. Family-environment risk factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Atest of Rutter's indicators of adversity. Arch Gen Psychiatry,1995 Jun;52(6):464-70.
16. Sonuga-Barke E.J. The dual pathway model of AD/HD: an elaboration of neuro-developmental characteristics. Neurosci Biobehav Rev,2003 Nov; 27(7):593-604.
17. Sterman, M.B. EEG Markers for attention deficit disorder: Pharmacological and Neurofeedback Applications. Child Study Journal,2002; 30 (1):1-24
18. Giedd J.N., Castellanos F.X., Casey B.J., et al. Quantitative morphology of the corpus callosum in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Amer J Psychiat,1994.151: 665-69
19. Filipek, P.A., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Steingard, R.J., Renshaw, P.F., Kennedy, D.N. and Biederman, J. Volumetric MRI analysis comparing subjects having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with normal controls. Neurology,1997; 48(3); 589-601
20. Castellanos, F.X., Giedd, J.N., March, W.L. et al. Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiat,1996.53: 607-13
21. Sorensen MJ, Mors O, Thomsen PH.DSM-IV or ICD-10-DCR diagnoses in child and adolescent psychiatry: does it matter?Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry,2005 Sep;14(6):335-40
22. Webb, J.T. Misdiagnosis and Dual Diagnosis of gifted Children: Gifted and LD, ADHD, OCD, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, paper presented at the 108thAnnual Conference of the American Psychological Association, August, 2000, Washington D.C.
23. American Psychiatric Association. Accessed on 12thMarch 2006 at http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/adhd.htm
24. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A,Malloy P, Hynes ME. Educational and occupational outcome of hyperactive boys grown up.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry,1997 Sep;36(9):1222-27.
25. Hinshaw, S. P. (1994). Attention deficits and hyperactivity in children. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
26. Kollins, S.H.,Barkley, R.A. and DuPaul G.J.Use and management of medications for children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, ArchNeurology,2001 41:825-29
27. Daley, D. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review of the essential facts.Child Care Health Dev,2006 Mar;32(2):193-204.
28. Purdie, N., Hattie, J. and Carroll,A. A Review of the Research on Interventions for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: What Works Best? RevEducatResearch,2002; 72(1)61–99.
29. MTA Cooperative Group. 14-Month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry,1999;56:1073-86.
30. National Institute forHealthand Clinical Excellence. Accessed February 4th, 2006, at http://www.nice.org.uk/page.aspx?o=207034
31. Zito, J.M., Safer, D.J., dosReis, S., Magder, L.S., Gardner, J.F., Zarin, D.A. Psychotherapeutic medication patterns for youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999 Dec;153(12):1257-63.
32. Leonard B.E., McCartan D, White J, King D. Methylphenidate: a review of its neuropharmacological, neuropsychological and adverse clinical effects. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp,2004; 19: 151-80.
33. Wall SC, Gu H, Rudnick G.Biogenic amine flux mediated by cloned transporters stably expressed in cultured cell lines: amphetamine specificity for inhibition and efflux. Mol Pharmacol. 1995;47: 544–50.
34. Volkow, N.D., Wang, G.J., Fowler, J.S., et al. Dopamine transporter occupancies in the human brain induced by therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate. Amer J Psychiat,1998a. 155: 1325–31.
35. Volkow,N.D.,Wang,G.J., Fowler,J.S., et al.Differences in regional brain metabolic responses between single and repeated doses of methylphenidate. Psychiat Res,1998b. 83: 29–36.
36. Tourette's Syndrome Study Group.Treatment of ADHD in children with tics: a randomized controlled trial.Neurology.2002 Feb. 26;58(4):527-36.
37. Pelham WE Jr, Greenslade KE, Vodde-Hamilton M, et al. Relative efficacy of long-acting stimulants on children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of standard methylphenidate, sustained-release methylphenidate, sustained-release dextroamphetamine, andpemoline. Pediatrics. 1990;86:226-37.
38. Pelham WE, Aronoff HR, Midlam JK, et al. A comparison of ritalin and adderall: efficacy and time-course in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 1999 Apr;103(4):e43.
39. Bouron A, Chatton JY. Acute application of the tricyclic antidepressant desipramine presynaptically stimulates the exocytosis of glutamate in the hippocampus.Neuroscience, 1999 Mar; 90(3): 729-36
40. Brown RT, Amler RW, Freeman WS, et al. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Quality Improvement; American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: overview of the evidence.Pediatrics.2005 Jun;115(6):e749-57.
41. Greydanus DE. Pharmacologic treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Indian J Pediatr.2005;72:953-60.
42. Hunt, R.D., Arnsten, A.F., Asbell, M.D. An open trial of guanfacine in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995 Jan;34(1):50-4.
43. Connor, D.F., Fletcher, K.E., Swanson, J.M. A meta-analysisof clonidine for symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999 Dec;38(12):1551-59.
44. Barbey, J.T., Roose, S.P.SSRI safety in overdose. J Clin Psychiatry,1998; 59 Suppl 15:42-8
45. Corman, S.L., Fedutes, B.A., Culley, C.M.Atomoxetine: the first nonstimulant for the management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2004 Nov;15;61(22):2391-99.
46. Barton, J. Atomoxetine: a new pharmacotherapeutic approach in the managementof attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Dis Child. 2005 Feb;90 Suppl 1:i26-9.
47. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.Accessed on 12thMarch,2006 at http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=7729
48.Simpson, D., Plosker, G.L., Atomoxetine: a review of its use in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Drugs. 2004;64(2):205-22.
49. AmericanAcademy of Pediatrics. Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Committee on Quality Improvement. Clinical practice guideline: treatment of the school-aged child withattention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics,2001;108;1033-44.
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2006-01-01
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Bull, S. . (2006). Nature or Nurture- A Review of the Aetiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Trinity Student Medical Journal , 7(1). Retrieved from https://ojs.tchpc.tcd.ie/index.php/tsmj/article/view/1856
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